(ITD2) Sociological Insights for Cybercrime and Deviance Studies

The Internet and other digital technologies provide relatively new platforms for experiencing criminal and deviant activities, as well as serve to produce new varieties of ‘victims’ and ‘offenders’. The unique structural conditions in online spaces have also obscured normative expectations, reinforced social inequalities, complicated responses from police and the legal system, and have even called into question the applicability of existing theoretical frameworks to explain offending in this context. These are among the many challenges that require further investigation by cybercrime scholars. To this end, this session highlights current empirical and/or theoretical contributions to the sociological study of cybercrime and online deviance, including topics such as adult cyber-victimization, ransomware victimization, routine online activity theory, digital surveillance for gender-based violence, and mortgage income fraud. Tags: Criminology, Technology

Organizers: Michael Adorjan, University of Calgary, Andrew Nevin, University of Massachusetts Boston; Chair: Michael Adorjan, University of Calgary

Presentations

Olivia Peters, University of Guelph

Correlates of Adult Cyber-Victimization: An Exploratory Study

Cyber-harassment is one of the most detrimental harms associated with the rise of internet-based communications and has inspired a significant body of scholarly research. However, the majority of this knowledge is informed by and directed toward individuals younger than 25, leaving the experiences and needs of older people largely unexplored. To address this gap our study circulated an electronic survey to a panel of 1,000 Canadians representing all regions of the country. This presentation will summarize key findings from this study, including 1) a perception gap between those who had experienced cyber-harassment versus those who reported it; 2) gendered, experiential, and socio-demographic differences in experiences; 3) observed relationships between experiences and sense of safety. Our approach is framed by victimization and neutralization lenses, suggesting that adults experiences are generally trivialized through media and the state. We conclude with a discussion of future avenues for redress.

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Non-presenting authors: Ryan Broll, University of Guelph; Rosemary Ricciardelli, Memorial University; Jocelyn Booton, Wilfrid Laurier University; James F. Popham, Wilfrid Laurier University

Dylan Reynolds, Cape Breton University

The Individual Victims of Ransomware Attacks: An Exploratory Study

Ransomware encrypts a victim’s devices, files, or networks so that the victim can no longer access them. Ransomware attacks involve perpetrators deploying ransomware, then demanding money in exchange for the return of data, and sometimes threatening to release data publicly. Although these attacks usually target major institutions (e.g., companies, hospitals, and universities), the data accessed are often people’s personal information. Breaches of personal information routinely impact Canadians in numerous ways and ransomware attacks are expected to produce especially varied consequences given offenders frequently target and leverage sensitive information. To date, no research has systematically examined the effects of ransomware attacks on the general population. This presentation will draw from a unique survey of Canadian adults currently being administered through CloudResearch’s Prime Panels (expected n = 2000). Prime Panels draws from a large, aggregated pool of other market research platforms’ existing participant pools. This survey begins by asking respondents if, to their knowledge, they have ever had their information targeted or seized in a ransomware attack. Participants who respond ‘yes’ are asked a series of questions about the nature of the incident, how the incident impacted them, and their knowledge and perception of the institution’s response. Respondents who indicate that they have not been impacted by ransomware attacks are presented with vignettes about different ransomware scenarios. These participants are asked to identify their level of distress in each scenario and are asked about their general knowledge of ransomware attacks in Canada. Due to the dearth of research on the social consequences of ransomware attacks, this survey includes several open-ended questions that tap into respondents’ perceptions of ransomware in Canada, which may reveal interesting lines of inquiry. The survey is estimated to take respondents an average of 20 minutes to complete. Respondents are currently completing the survey, and it is expected to be closed by the end of February 2024. Despite using a non-random sample of Canadians, this survey will provide the most comprehensive assessment of how ransomware attacks against institutions impact Canadians. Depending on the results of the survey and open-ended responses, I expect the presentation to discuss some of the following three themes. First, the presentation is likely to discuss the impact of ransomware attacks on Canadians, including reporting on financial, emotional, or other harms experienced. With no real prevalence estimates available, it is difficult to estimate how many respondents will report having been impacted by ransomware attacks, but this presentation may be able to explore trends in consequences based on the type of institution attacked (e.g., school, corporation, hospital, etc.) or based on individuals’ relationships to the institution (e.g., employee, client, customer, etc.). Second, this presentation can report on Canadians’ general knowledge and perceptions of ransomware attacks. This survey allows respondents to report if they are unsure whether they have been impacted by ransomware attacks and includes questions about ransomware attacks that participants are aware of, even if they did not impact them. Third, this presentation can report on Canadians’ perceptions of institutions’ responses following ransomware attacks. The survey asks respondents, both those who have and have not been impacted by ransomware, whether they believe institutions should pay attackers or deny ransom demands. Overall, the anticipated findings of this research are likely to provide a clearer understanding of how Canadians understand and are impacted by ransomware attacks, which could inform future research and policy.

Michaela Michalopulos, McGill University

Beyond Traditional Crime: Routine Online Activity Theory in the Era of Big Data

This paper is a critical re-examination of Robert K. Mertons Strain Theory, viewed through the contemporary lens of Routine Online Activity Theory as revitalized by Travis C. Pratt, Kristy Holtfreter, and Michael D. Reisig (2010). It marks the first substantial application of this theoretical framework in over a decade, offering a perspective on the concept of strain in the era of Big Data, pulling on data from the 2022-2023 Survey of Canadians on privacy-related issues. This study ventures into the web of digital victimization and the evolving role of surveillance in criminology, emphasizing the exploitation of personal data. Revisiting the foundational principles of Mertons Strain Theory, particularly the adaptation individuals adopt in response to societal pressures, the research adapts them to the digital age. In this new landscape, individuals confront unique challenges as entities like Facebook and TikTok relentlessly harvest personal data. I argue that the digital epoch has fostered unprecedented societal pressures, compelling a reassessment of Mertons original Strain Theory. I introduce "digital strain surveillance," a term I coined to encapsulate the pressures and victimizations that emerge from routine online activities, dovetailing with Pratt et al.s theoretical modernization. The empirical evidence from the Survey of Canadians underscores how personal data has become central to individuals online routine activities, rendering them vulnerable to victimization through privacy breaches and identity theft. Notably, while 89% of Canadians express concern about social media platforms collecting their personal information for profiling, only half have taken action by deleting or discontinuing the use of a social media account due to privacy concerns. Additionally, a smaller fraction, 38%, have ceased business relations with companies or organizations after experiencing a privacy breach. My findings lend statistical support to the concept that users, despite a clear mistrust in the ability of big data conglomerates to protect their personal information, persist in their engagement with these platforms. This contradictory behavior exemplifies a current-day embodiment of Sykes and Matzas "neutralization theory" where individuals rationalize the use of digital platforms they deem insecure, despite the apparent privacy risks. The paper further examines the role of surveillance capitalism in intensifying this digital strain, suggesting that the commodification of personal data has engendered a pervasive environment of exploitation and vulnerability. This shift signifies a novel societal pressure that extends Merton’s Strain Theory into the digital ages unique challenges. Moreover, the study probes into the social and psychological repercussions of this strain, evaluating how the menace of data exploitation impairs individuals trust in digital platforms and their overall sense of security. A further aim of my paper is to situate surveillance within the field of criminology, disentangling it from its traditional association with crime deterrence and policing alone. Surveillance, in the digital age, transcends its conventional boundaries to include the mechanisms of data collection and analysis that constitute the backbone of big data operations. This broadened perspective of surveillance examines how it operates not only as a means of social control but also as a factor that influences and potentially facilitates the conditions for digital victimization. Through this lens, surveillance is understood as a complex construct that has profound implications for privacy, personal autonomy, and security within the digital landscape. At present, the issue of data rights is predominantly situated within the legal sphere, often framed in terms of policy debates and legislative measures designed to protect personal information in the digital age. However, my research argues for a broader conceptualization of data rights, integrating them into the criminological discourse as a fundamental aspect of understanding digital strain.

Lucinda Yae-Rim Ro, York University

"There are no girls on the Internet.": Theoretical considerations in analyzing surveillance for gender-based violence in digital space.

This paper aims to address the gaps in existing mainstream theorizations within the field of the sociology of technology, particularly in relation to surveillance studies. It highlights the need to expand and incorporate critical perspectives into current theoretical frameworks to effectively examine and understand the excessive surveillance and violence experienced by women and girls in both physical and digital spaces. While there have been growing efforts to integrate critical perspectives in recent years, mainstream theories on surveillance still exhibit a tendency to overlook or mention in passing the disciplines, methodologies, and voices that have historically been marginalized within academic discourses. Furthermore, due to the increasing complexities driven by the evolving and sharply increased usage of digital technologies, it presents an important and timely challenge for technology and surveillance studies to reconsider and scrutinize the contemporary understanding of biopolitics; what it means to live and die in the contemporary world. Therefore, this paper reviews seminal works on biopolitics and surveillance studies to explore alternative theories that can account for the experiences of women and gender-nonconforming individuals in digital spaces, and proposes three conceptual frameworks for analysis: visuality, borders, and privacy. I argue that even in the digital realm in which individual identities and subjectivities are abstracted to data, physical bodies do not leave the criminological and surveillance apparatus; in fact, the bodies continue to hold significance as a source of knowledge, object of discipline and control, and the predictor of future. Furthermore, this paper draws upon decolonial, feminist, and Queer theories to illustrate how victim/offender dichotomy is significantly blurred for women and Queer populations. This blurring of identities is particularly evident in spaces where specific modes of governance are constantly enforced, in which various forms of surveillance technologies and online spaces continue to produce and reinforce knowledge based on specific and dominant perspectives, thereby continuing to function as means of social exclusion. In conclusion, this paper argues that there is an inherent power imbalance in mainstream discourses on surveillance and technology studies, and advocates for the embracing of diverse critical perspectives and alternative sociocultural forms of analyses and highlights the importance of embracing diverse critical perspectives and considering other sociocultural forms for analysis for the discipline to meaningfully progress.

Nitya Yeldandi, Royal Roads University

A Review of Trends and Prevention Strategies for Mortgage Income Fraud in the Canadian Market

This research critically examines the pervasive issue of mortgage income fraud within the Canadian mortgage market, delving into its prevalence, root causes, consequences, and preventive strategies. The Canadian mortgage market, integral to the nations economic stability, faces a significant threat from mortgage income fraud, which disrupts the housing sector, erodes consumer trust, and challenges the foundations of the financial ecosystem. This qualitative research explores trends and strategies to prevent mortgage income fraud in the Canadian market, aiming to enhance the Canadian mortgage industrys effectiveness. Employing primary research methods, including interviews with diverse subject matter experts (SMEs) and an extensive literature review, the study focuses on understanding financial implications, risk management, and mitigation strategies related to income fraud. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques ensured a comprehensive participant pool, addressing challenges through informed consent and voluntary participation. Semi-structured interviews, guided by open-ended questions, provided nuanced insights. Thematic analysis identified common themes, merging expert interviews and literature review for a holistic understanding of Canadian mortgage income fraud. While acknowledging potential limitations, the methodology strives to equip stakeholders with a nuanced understanding of enhancing efficiency, reducing risk, and improving the customer experience in the Canadian mortgage industry. This research analyzes trends and prevention strategies for mortgage income fraud in Canada to combat fraudulent activity and protect the mortgage industrys integrity. This research project seeks to analyze the trends and prevention strat-egies related to mortgage income fraud in the Canadian market, to provide insights and recommendations to combat this fraudulent activity and safeguard the integrity of the mort-gage industry. : How can the Canadian mortgage sector effectively combat income fraud in mortgage applications while ensuring a secure lending process and preserving the legitimacy of financial transactions? Sub-questions: What are Canadian mortgage applications most common income deception types and patterns? Which main elements lead to income fraud in mortgage applications? What prevention techniques do Canadian financial institutions and regulatory organiza-tions currently use to lessen the risks of income fraud in the mortgage sector? How successful are the preventative techniques currently employed in identifying and stopping income fraud in mortgage applications? What prospective advancements and innovative strategies might be used to better identi-fy and stop income fraud in the Canadian mortgage market? This paper highlights the negative consequences of income fraud within the mortgage industry and recommends urgent action to combat it. The paper suggests a comprehensive strategy involving advanced technology, employee training, and a robust corporate governance framework. Advanced AI algorithms can scrutinize vast datasets for early indicators of fraudulent activities, while dynamic and responsive training programs can empower staff in identifying fraud and implementing preventive measures. The adoption of the outlined principles is positioned as a significant step toward cultivating a more secure and trustworthy mortgage industry. This paper holds substantial relevance to the overarching theme of the session and the CSA Conference as a whole. The theme, presumably related to financial systems, security, or risk management, aligns seamlessly with the researchs focus on income fraud within the mortgage industry. By addressing a critical issue with far-reaching implications for borrowers and the financial sector, the paper directly contributes to the broader conversation on ensuring the integrity and security of financial transactions. The presentation of innovative strategies, including advanced technology and employee training, positions the research as a valuable contribution to the conferences exploration of contemporary solutions within the financial landscape. The emphasis on cutting-edge technology and its application in fraud prevention, as evidenced by studies from various researchers, resonates with the conferences likely interest in staying abreast of the latest developments in the field. Furthermore, the collective responsibility advocated in the conclusion aligns with the collaborative spirit often emphasized in conferences like CSA. The paper implies that addressing income fraud requires a concerted effort from policymakers, financial institutions, and other stakeholders, fostering a sense of community and shared responsibility. In summary, this research paper substantively contributes to the conference theme by addressing a pertinent issue, presenting innovative solutions, and advocating for collective action, thereby enriching the dialogue on financial security and integrity.

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Non-presenting author: Mark Lokanan, Royal Roads University