Muscle Worship and Masculinity: Unmasking Heteronormativity in Bodybuilding Gyms


Mila Tucker, University of Calgary

Bodybuilding gymnasiums have been critiqued as institutions that reiterate the discourse which asserts mens physical dominance over women in society (Klein, 1993). Adding weight to this critique is the observation that a substantial 70% of gymnasium ownership is held by men (Debas, 2022). The concept of biological determinism advocates that men are biologically stronger than women, justifying their positions of power, while women are relegated to categories of passiveness and submission (Nicholson, 1994). Emerging from 1970s feminist movements, female bodybuilding has become a prevalent sport for self-identifying women (Scott, 2011). However, bodybuilding women are frequently subject to critiques of their gender and sexual identities due to the alignment of strength, power, and domination with normative masculine descriptions (Mottier, 2002). Muscle worship, which is often referred to as sthenolagnia in fetish communities, is a form of BDSM which involves the erotic admiration of muscularity, typically focusing on the defined physique of a professional bodybuilder. This activity, which frequently does not lead to full copulation, encompasses activities such as fondling, kissing, or licking muscles; flexing, wrestling, and verbal humiliation. Heterosexual men, often referred to as "schmoes" in this community, are willing to pay female bodybuilders large amounts for the opportunity to covertly engage in muscle worship with them (Chare, 2011). This desire to be dominated by another person has been theorized as a means of challenging traditional gender roles and heteronormative expectations within a controlled and consensual setting (Chare, 2014). Despite a variety of awakenings regarding the defiance of heteronormative sexuality in these kink spaces, the pervasive culture of toxic masculinity continues to be maintained within bodybuilding gymnasiums. Through the lens of Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical theory, this paper will critically review how “schmoes” preform to appease the hegemonic assumptions of masculinity in their “frontstage” (Goffman, 2016), while quietly subverting traditional gendered stereotypes in their “backstage” (Goffman, 2016). Through the utilization of impression management tactics such as ingratiation, intimidation, exemplification, supplication, and self-promotion, “schmoes” generate a façade which is congruent with the societally acceptable definitions of masculinity, while subtly challenging conventional gender stereotypes in spaces where they feel as though they are free from societal critiques. Overall, this research seeks the answer to a fundamental question: How do individuals engaged with muscle worship negotiate their masculinity while subverting traditional gender stereotypes behind closed doors, and how does this practice contribute more broadly to the nuanced dynamics of gender, power, and the perpetuation of toxic masculinity within bodybuilding gymnasiums? This critical analysis will address the ways in which toxic masculinity is able to pervade the world of bodybuilding in the public sphere, despite these aspects of heteronormative defiance happening surreptitiously. Additionally, this paper engages with both feminist literature and with BDSM perspectives to provide a comprehensive understanding of the gendered dynamics that exist within bodybuilding gymnasiums. This research will facilitate a more profound conversation surrounding the existence of toxic masculinity, gender dynamics, and power structures within the institution of sport, contributing to breaking down societal expectations of masculinity in these areas and fostering an enriched discourse on these complex issues.

This paper will be presented at the following session: